Carcinogen Definition What Are Carcinogens

A carcinogen is defined as any substance or radiation that promotes cancer formation or carcinogenesis. Chemical carcinogens may be natural or synthetic, toxic or non-toxic. Many carcinogens are organic in nature, such as benzo[a]pyrene and viruses. An example of carcinogenic radiation is ultraviolet light.   How Carcinogens Work Carcinogens prevent normal cell death (apoptosis) from occurring so cellular division is uncontrolled. This results in a tumor. If the tumor develops the ability to spread or metastasize (becomes malignant), cancer results. Some carcinogens damage DNA, however, if significant genetic damage occurs, usually a cell simply dies. Carcinogens alter cellular metabolism in other ways, causing affected cells to become less specialized and either masking them from the immune system or else preventing the immune system from killing them. Everyone is exposed to carcinogens every day, yet not every exposure leads to cancer. The body uses several mechanisms to remove carcinogens or repair/remove damaged cells: Cells recognize many carcinogens and attempt to render them harmless through biotransformation.  Biotransformation increases the solubility of a carcinogen in water, making it easier to flush from the body. However, sometimes biotransformation increases the carcinogenicity of a chemical.DNA repair genes fix damaged DNA before it can replicate. Usually, the mechanism works, but sometimes the damage isnt fixed or is too extensive for the system to repair.Tumor suppressor genes ensure cell growth and division behave normally. If a carcinogen affects a proto-oncogene (gene involved in normal cell growth), the change can allow cells to divide and live when they ordinarily wouldnt. Genetic changes or hereditary predisposition play a role in carcinogen activity. Examples of Carcinogens Radionuclides are carcinogens, whether or not they are toxic, because they emit alpha, beta, gamma, or neutron radiation that can ionize tissues. Many types of radiation are carcinogenic, such as ultraviolet light (including sunlight), x-rays, and gamma rays. Usually, microwaves, radio waves, infrared light, and visible light are not considered carcinogenic because the photons dont have enough energy to break chemical bonds. However, there are documented cases of usually safe forms of radiation being associated with increased cancer rate with prolonged high-intensity exposure. Foods and other materials that have been irradiated with electromagnetic radiation (e.g., x-rays, gamma rays) are not carcinogenic. Neutron irradiation, in contrast, can make substances carcinogenic through secondary radiation. Chemical carcinogens include carbon electrophiles, which attack DNA. Examples of carbon electrophiles are mustard gas, some alkenes, aflatoxin, and benzo[a]pyrene. Cooking and processing foods can produce carcinogens. Grilling or frying food, in particular, can produce carcinogens such as acrylamide (in french fries and potato chips) and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (in grilled meat). Some of the main carcinogens in cigarette smoke are benzene, nitrosamine, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of these compounds are found in other smoke, too. Other important chemical carcinogens are formaldehyde, asbestos, and vinyl chloride. Natural carcinogens include aflatoxins (found in grains and peanuts), the hepatitis B and human papillomaviruses, the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, and the liver flukes Clonorchis sinensis and Oposthorchis veverrini. How Carcinogens Are Classified There are many different systems of classifying carcinogens, generally based on whether a substance is known to be carcinogenic in humans, a suspected carcinogen, or a carcinogen in animals. Some classification systems also allow for labeling a chemical as unlikely to be a human carcinogen. One system is that used by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), which is part of the World Health Organization (WHO). Group 1: known human carcinogen, likely to cause cancer under typical exposure circumstancesGroup 2A: probably a human carcinogenGroup 2B: possibly a human carcinogenGroup 3: not classifiableGroup 4: probably not a human carcinogen Carcinogens may be categorized according to the type of damage they cause. Genotoxins are carcinogens that bind to DNA, mutate it, or cause irreversible damage. Examples of genotoxins include ultraviolet light, other ionizing radiation, some viruses, and chemicals such as N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU). Nongenotoxins dont damage DNA, but they promote cell growth and/or prevent programmed cell death. Examples of nongenotoxic carcinogens are some hormones and other organic compounds. How Scientists Identify Carcinogens The only certain way to know whether a substance is a carcinogen is to expose people to it and see if they develop cancer. Obviously, this is neither ethical nor practical, so most carcinogens are identified in other ways. Sometimes an agent is predicted to cause cancer because it has a similar chemical structure or effect on cells as  a known carcinogen. Other studies are conducted on cell cultures and lab animals, using much higher concentrations of chemicals/viruses/radiation than a person would encounter. These studies identify suspected carcinogens because the action in animals may be different in humans. Some studies use epidemiological data to find trends in human exposure and cancer. Procarcinogens and Co-carcinogens Chemicals that are not carcinogenic, but become carcinogens when they are metabolized in the body are called procarcinogens. An example of a procarcinogen is nitrite, which is metabolized to form carcinogenic nitrosamines. A co-carcinogen or promoter is a chemical that doesnt cause cancer on its own but promotes carcinogen activity. The presence of both chemicals together increases the likelihood of carcinogenesis. Ethanol (grain alcohol) is an example of a promoter.

The Theoretical Approaches Of Sociology View Crime And...

17. Discuss the major differences in how the three theoretical approaches of Sociology view crime and deviance. Give examples of specific theories. The functionalist view in relation to deviance is a belief that anyone can be convicted of a crime. Everyone is treated equal in the eyes of law. For example, a celebrity and a homeless man could both be convicted for the same crime. Both would be tried the same, with equal consequences. The Social conflict view is a view in which the elites make the laws. An example of the Social conflict view would be a Rich man making a law to benefit only the upper class. Symbolic Interactionism is when moral entrepreneurs push for certain laws. Symbolic Interactionism uses the labeling theory. An example of Symbolic interaction in deviance would be a past criminal being labeled as more dangerous than a first time criminal who simply made a mistake. 18. What is the typical experience of an alleged drug offender in the U.S. court system (The New Jim Crow)? How do financial incentives encourage the police to make drug-law enforcement a top priority? Michelle Alexander, author of â€Å"The New Jim Crow†, states, â€Å"Harsh mandatory minimum for drug offenders have been consistently upheld by the U.S Supreme Court† (18). A typical experience according to Alexander consists of harsh consequences, a lengthy term, and a high statistical chance of returning to prison. Police receive a bonus for every drug bust made. Of course other cases such as a murderShow MoreRelatedExplain why is it important to analyse deviance in society. 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E-Research Proposal Hand Book.Pdf Free Essays

string(48) " to determine whether the methodology is sound\." Hand Book Of M. S / M. Phil Ph. We will write a custom essay sample on E-Research Proposal Hand Book.Pdf or any similar topic only for you Order Now D Research Proposal / Synopsis Compiled By: Mr. Nasir Shaheen Additional Registrar Mr. Ijaz Ahmad Coordinator M. Phil / Ph. D Programs Qurtuba University of Science and Information Technology, Peshawar. e Left Blank Intentionally 4 Preface As a rule, the main components of a research study are nearly the same in all disciplines throughout the world. Though, various styles of referencing and citation are used by the researchers in their research work i. e. APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Turabian etc. Nonetheless, every established university develops its own customized format for its students’ facilitation in presentation of research proposals and theses. This handbook is compiled to facilitate the M. S / M. Phil and Ph. D students of Qurtuba University in developing their research proposals and to bring an overall uniformity in their research proposals. The format suggested in this handbook is mandatory for all M. S / M. Phil and Ph. D. students to develop and submit their proposal for approval of Board of Advanced Studies and Research (BOASAR). Further, the students are required to prepare their research proposal under the supervision of their respective supervisors. The purpose of the research proposal / synopsis is to help the scholars to focus and define their research plans. A well developed research proposal needs to include certain basic components, in which a number of questions are to be addressed. Why research on the proposed topic should be undertaken and what gains are likely to be achieved? What has been done previously in this or related areas? What are the objectives of the study and how these will be achieved? What methodology is to be used to carry out the study? An extensive initial exercise should help in designing a sound research project, which is likely to make a significant contribution in successful completion of M. S / M. Phil and Ph. D. research. 1 1 – Preliminary Section 1. 1 Title Page: The title page of the research proposal / synopsis should include title of the research project, name of the student (with qualifications), name of the supervisor(s), place of work and date (month and year) of submission. The topic for research should be selected carefully. It should be specific and well formulated in order to show the nature of work involved as far as possible (See Sample) . 2 Certificates: The following certificates should be attached after title page: i – Detailed Marks Sheet (part of the proposal) iii – Approval Certificate (as a part of the proposal / synopsis) 1. 3 (See sample) Table of Contents: List the sections of proposal / synopsis and page references. Use hierarchy of titles and sub titles. 2 2 †“ Body of Research Proposal / Synopsis 2. 1 Introduction: It should provide a brief description to introduce the area of the proposed research work and provide background information relating to the social / political / historical / educational / organizational (etc) context of the study. . 2 Literature Review: A review of the relevant literature showing the work done previously in the area of proposed research is essential to plan further research effectively. The information given in the review should be supported by references. The function of the literature review is to show your supervisor and the department that you are aware of significant writers / researchers in the field, and to indicate which issues / topics you will focus on in your review. Literature review is not expected to be extensive for the proposal / synopsis. You should demonstrate critical analysis and your review should be shaped by your argument and should seek to establish your theoretical orientation. 2. 3 Research Problem / Questions: A concise research problem statement that, in one to three sentences, describes specifically what the problem is that you intend to solve. It explains what problems or issues you wish to explore and why you wish to explore them. 3 2. 4 Research Objective: The General /Global Objective should state the expected contribution of the research to the general body of knowledge in the subject area. The Specific Objectives should state how specifically the general objectives will be achieved. 2. 5 Hypotheses (Optional): The students may include hypothesis of the study in their proposal depending on the nature of the research. Hypotheses should be in the form of Null Hypothesis (H0) and Alternate Hypothesis (H1). 2. 6 Methodology: The Methodology section is very important because it documents how you plan to tackle your research problem. Depending on the nature and the underlying methodological pproach to be adopted for the proposed research work the followings may be documented in this section: Research Design and Method †¢ Indicate which research design is to be adopted/used (if any) †¢ Is the research QUANTITATIVE or QUALITATIVE in nature in terms of the methodology? †¢ Discuss and justify your choice of research method †¢ Highlight and discuss the relevance of the adopted method to your study †¢ Describe how the adopted method will be applied Research Type †¢ Is the research Explorative, Descriptive, Causal or a Case study method? Techniques / Tools /Approaches / Instrumentation/Devices Which techniques, tools/instruments, approaches etc will be adopted and used to develop/produce, present/demonstrate the expected results of the proposed study †¢ Highlight and discuss the relevance of these techniques /tools / instruments /approaches to your study. 4 †¢ Describe how these techniques/tools/ instruments or approaches will be applied or used Data Collection Methods (if applicable) †¢ Clearly indicate as to whether you are going to use primary or secondary data †¢ Indicate what does primary or secondary data mean (i. e. provide a theoretical perspective). †¢ Identify the secondary data which you are going to use for your study. Population and Sampling Procedures (if applicable) †¢ Identify and document the population or reference for the study. In case of different components of the population, clearly indicate this †¢ Discuss the various sampling frames, types and techniques that will be adopted including an indication of the type of statistical data analysis that will be carried out to analyze the results In brief the guiding principle for writing the methodology section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether the methodology is sound. You read "E-Research Proposal Hand Book.Pdf" in category "Essay examples" It may well be the longest section of your proposal. . 7 Significance of the Study: While documenting the significance of the research you need to indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend the frontiers of existing knowledge in the area under investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have substantive, theoretical, or methodological significance. The documentation of the significance of the study should, among other things, address the following questions: †¢ What are the specific, significant, unique/major contributions that the proposed research work will make to the area/body of knowledge? What will be the expected results/outcome of the proposed research? †¢ What will be the practical implications/use of the expected results/outcome? †¢ How will the expected results/outcome of the study be implemented, including a statement on its possible impact and on what innovations will come about through its implementation (if any)? 5 †¢ What areas/directions of further/subsequent research work are likely to arise from the expected outcome/findings or results of the proposed study? †¢ What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research work? . 8 Limitation: Document the potential weaknesses or the possible limitations of the expected results/out come of the proposed study and the limitations of the approaches, procedures, methods etc to be adopted to achieve the expected results of the proposed study. Also to be included are statements relating to issues, factors beyond the control of the study. 2. 9 References Bibliography: A section listing relevant references on which the research proposal is based should be included. Only references cited in the text are to be included in the reference list. The tudents of Social Sciences should use APA style for citation while students of Linguistics and Literature should use MLA Style for citation. The student should add the relevant Bibliography in the last part after References in alphabetical order. 2. 10 Student Profile: A comprehensive student profile consisting of bio data, educational qualification and professional background of the student should be the last part of the proposal. The student profile should be made as per suggested format. [see sample] 6 3 – Referencing and Citation – For Social Sciences All the students of Social Sciences i. . Management Sciences, Political Sciences, International Relations and Education are required to use the following style of referencing and citation in their proposals. (The basic concept is taken from APA style of referencing) 3. 1 Handling Quotes in the Text †¢ Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are incorporated into the text and enclosed by double quotation marks (â€Å" †). †¢ Long quotations (more than 40 words) are typed in a double-spaced block with no quotation marks. Indent five spaces and type the entire quotation on the indented margin without the usual opening paragraph indentation. Give citation information in parentheses ( ) after last sentence in block quotation, with no punctuation following parentheses. If you have a quote within a short quote, enclose it in single quotation marks (‘ ‘). If you have a quote within a block quotation, enclose it in double quotation marks (â€Å" †). †¢ †¢ †¢ Ellipsis points (†¦) are used to indicate material omitted from the body of a quotation, but should not be used at the beginning or end of a quotation. 3. 2 In-Text Citation Citations within the text of your paper refer the reader to an alphabetical reference list at the end of the paper. APA format uses the author-date method of citation. The author’s last name and the publication date are inserted at the appropriate point in the text, following the material cited. Suffixes such as PhD. or Jr. are not included. Works by a single author: If the author is mentioned in the paper, provide the year of publication in ( ) just after the name: Ex: Hacking (1998) covers material on public record about chronic fatigue syndrome. If the author is not mentioned in the paper, at the end of the quote or paraphrase use the author’s last name and the year, separated by a comma: Ex: The article covers material on public record about chronic fatigue syndrome (Hacking, 1998). If both the author and the date are mentioned in the text, a parenthetical reference is not needed. Ex: In a 1993 article, Gould explains Darwin’s most successful theory. 7 For exact quotations, cite specific page numbers following the year. Ex: Emily Bronte â€Å"expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social† (Taylor, 1988, p. 11). For paraphrased passages, page numbers are encouraged, but not required. The year is required. For an online source with no pagination: If page numbers are not provided on an electronic source, use the abbreviation â€Å"para. † to indicate the paragraph location of direct quotes. Ex: In exchange for that cooperation, authorities have recommended a sentence of 15 years in prison (Hayes, 2009, para. 4). Works by two authors: Provide the last names of both authors. Use the word â€Å"and† to separate the names in the sentence, and use an to separate their names in the parenthetical citation. Ex: As Sullivan and Thomas (1998) point out†¦ Ex: The turmoil in the Middle East is the result of politics (Sullivan Thomas, 1998). Works by more than two authors: Use the last names of all authors in the first citation. Then, in all following citations, include only the last name of the first author followed by â€Å"et al. † Ex: Writing becomes better as the child matures (Britton, Thomas, Miller, 1996). Ex: According to Britton et al. (1996), a child s writing improves over time. Works with no author identified: When a work has no author identified, cite the first two or three words of the reference list entry followed by the year. The first entry is usually the title. Italicize the title of a periodical or book; use double quotation marks around the title of an article or chapter. Ex: in the book Language Use (1991). Ex: article on language use (â€Å"World languages,† 1993). Secondary Sources: When a work mentions another, previously published work, acknowledge the original author in your text, but give the source you are using in the reference list. Use the phrase â€Å"as cited in† for your in-text reference. Ex: As Villa points out, â€Å"Perhaps the conflict seems so strong because the stakes are so low† (as cited in Affleck, Allen, Della, 1996). Personal Communication (Including letters, e-mail, and interviews): Do not add this information to your reference list. You should cite the information in text only. Give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide an exact date: Ex: L. J. Smith (personal communication, September 20, 2009). Ex: (A. N. Jones, personal communication, March 18, 2009). 8 3. 3 Reference List: BOOKS Note: In titles of books in the reference list, capitalize only the first word of the title, the first word after a colon, and proper nouns. Author’s name. (publication date). Title. City and state of publication: Publisher. Books by one author Ex: Alvarez, M. (1999). The trip within. New York, NY: Random House. In-text citation: (Alvarez, 1999). Books by two to even authors Authors’ names in the order in which they appear. (date). Title of publication. City and state: Publisher. Ex: Strunk, W. , Jr. , Jones, T. , White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style (3rd ed. ). New York, NY: Macmillan. In-text citation: (Strunk, Jones, White, 1979). List the first six authors, then insert three ellipsis points, and add the last Author’s name. Books with 8 or more authors Ex: Engberg, M. , Dugan, J. P. , Haworth, J. , Williams, T. , Kelly, B. , Johnson, W. , †¦ Stewart, S. (2009). Navigating the complexity of higher education in preparation program administration. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. First in-text citation: (Engberg, Dugan, Haworth, Williams, Kelly, Johnson, Smith, Stewart, 2009). Subsequent in-text citations: (Engberg, et al. , 2009). Alphabetize group authors by the first significant word of the name. Books by a group, (date). Title. City: Publisher (When the author and publisher are institutional, or the same, use the word â€Å"Author† as the name of the publisher). corporate authors Ex: Springhouse Corporation. (2002). Assessment made incredibly easy. Springhouse, PA: Author. In-text citation: (Springhouse Corporation, 2002). For a book with an editor but no author, begin with the name of the editor (or editors) followed by the abbreviation â€Å"Ed. † (or â€Å"Eds. † for more than one editor) in parentheses. Books with Editors Ex: Duncan, G. J. , Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds. ). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. In-text citation: (Duncan Brooks-Gunn, 1997). 9 Ex: Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective well- being. In M. Eid R. J. Larsen (Eds. ), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 17-43). New York, NY: Guilford Press. In-text citation: (Haybron, 2008). Cite as you normally would, but add information about the editor in parentheses after the book title. A book written by an Ex: Plath, Sylvia. (2000). The unabridged journals (K. V. Kukil, Ed. ). author but overseen by an New York, NY: Anchor. editor For a book with a chapter written by an author but edited by another person In-text citation: (Plath, 2000). 3. 4 Reference List: ARTICLES Author’s name. (date). Title of chapter or entry. In Editors (Eds. ), Title of reference book. (Vol. #, pp. #). Location: Publisher. Article or entry in a reference book Ex: Field, T. (2002). Child abuse and neglect. In A. Kazdin (Ed. , Encyclopedia of psychology. (Vol. 2, pp. 61-65). Washington, D. C. : Oxford. In-text citation: (Field, 2002). Ex: Schizophrenia. (1983). In A. Kazdin (Ed. ), The encyclopedia of psychology. (Vol. 10, p. 104). New York, NY: Wiley. In-text citation: (Schizophrenia, 1983). Scholarly journals are often published by volume, and page numbers may continue throughout the year instead of beginning each issue with page 1. After the italicized title of the journal, give the volume number (also italicized, but do not use Vol. ) followed by the page numbers at the end of the citation (do not use pp. ) Articles in scholarly Author(s). (date). Title of article. Title of Periodical or Journal, volume journals and periodicals #, page #s. paginated by volume Ex: Spitch, M. L. , Verzy, H. N. , Wilkie, D. M. (1993). Subjective shortening: A model of pigeon s memory for event duration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 9, 14-66. Articles in journals paginated by issues In-text citation: (Spitch, Verzy, Wilkie, 1993). When each issue of a journal begins with page 1, include the issue number in paranthesesAuthor. (date). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume # (issue #), page #s. Ex: Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 0 News magazines are usually published weekly or monthly. Note the month (and date, if given), along with the year. Remember to include volume and issue numbers if available. Articles in magazines (7. 01. 7) Articles in newspapers (7. 01. 7) Ex: Cortese, A. (1998, January 26). There’s more than one way to play monopoly. Business Week, 3562(1), 3 6. In-text citation: (Cortese, 1998). Begin with the name of the author, if one is given, followed by the year, month, and day of publication. Page numbers are introduced with â€Å"p. † (or â€Å"pp. † for multiple pages). Ex: Haney, D. Q. (1998, February 20). Finding eats at mystery of appetite. The Oregonian, pp. A1, A17. In-text citation: (Haney, 1998). 3. 5 Reference List: ELECTRONIC SOURCES (Including: Web sites, electronic books, Pro Quest, EBSCO host and other library databases) If you cannot find some of this information for your reference, cite what is available. Note: The updated guidelines for electronic sources state that the digital object identifier number (DOI) must be included if one is assigned. â€Å"A DOI is a unique alphanumeric string assigned by a registration agency to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet† (American Psychological Association, 2010, 189). Note: If a DOI is available, use it at the end of a citation. If it is not available, use the URL of the web site from which the information was retrieved. Note: Retrieval dates are only necessary if the information will prove difficult to find again due to revision (ex. Wikis). Note: Titles of documents or articles are not in italics and only the first word is capitalized. Titles of journals and other periodicals are to be written in italics and all major words are capitalized. Titles of web sites are capitalized but not in italics. 11 Author(s). (Date of Publication). Title of document. Retrieved from electronic address Ex: Shiltz, T. (2002). Strategies for prevention and early intervention of male eating disorders. Retrieved from http://nationaleatingdisorders. org/p. asp? WebPage_ID=286Profile_ID= 41172 Web site (Not a periodical article) Articles from an online journal Articles from an online magazine U. S. government report from a government agency Web site An online video In text citation: (Shiltz, 2002). Ex: Butler, Heidi. (2009, November 19). Pennsylvania professor of the year. Retrieved from http://www. northampton. edu/Northampton- NOW/What-anHonor. htm In text citation: When referring to a specific piece of nformation, include paragraph numbers in the reference. Use â€Å"para. † Example: (Butler, 2003, paras. 2-3). Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of article. Journal Title, Volume Number (Issue Number), pages if available. Retrieved from electronic address Ex: Royce, W. S. , Gebelt, J. L. , Duff, R. W. (2003). Female athletes: Being both athletic and feminine. Athletic Insi ght, 5(1), 5662. Retrieved from http://www. athleticinsight. com/VOL5Iss1/FeminineAthl etes. htm In text citation: (Royce, Gebelt, Duff, 2003). Author(s). (Date of Publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, Volume Number (if given) (Issue Number), page(s). Retrieved from electronic address. Ex: Rauch, J. (2002, May). The marrying kind. The Atlantic Online, 289(5). Retrieved from http://www. theatlantic. com/issues/2002/05/rauch. htm In text citation: (Rauch, 2002). Ex: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. (2002). ATF accountability report, 2001. Retrieved from http://www. atf. gov/pub/gen_pub/2001annrpt/fy2001an nrpt. pdf In text citation: First citation: (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms [ATF], 2002). Second and subsequent citations: (ATF, 2002). Ex: Norton, R. (2006, November 4). How to train a cat to operate a light switch [Video file]. Retreived from 2 http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=Vja83KLQXZs A blog post In-text citation: (Norton, 2006). Ex: Grohol, J. M. (2009, November 17). The psychology of terrorism [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://psychcentral. com/blog/archives/2009/11/17/thepsychology-of-terrorism/ In-text citation: (Grohol, 2009). Author(s). (Year of publication). Title [information about format or version if available]. doi or website that document was retrieved from. Online Book (E-Book) Ex: Thompson, Art. (1997). The stompbox. Retrieved from http://www. netlibrary. com/ In text citation: (Thompson, 1997). Ex: Schinraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing, recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi: 10. 1036/0071393722 In text citation: (Schinraldi, 2001). 3. 6 Reference List: MEDIA Single episode from television series Video Ex: Astrof, J. Ottesen, P. (Writers), Burrows, J. (Director). (1994). The one with the blackout [Television series episode]. In K. Bright, M. Kauffman, D. Crane (Executive producers), Friends. Burbank, CA: Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. In-text citation: (Astrof, Ottesen, Burrows, 1994). Ex: Thomas, J. McLaren, M. (Producers), Linklater, R. (Director). (2006). Fast Food Nation [DVD]. Beverly Hills, CA: Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment. In-text citation: (Thomas, McLaren, Linklater, 2006). 13 3. 7 Reference List: GENERAL REFERENCE DATABASES Please note: The name of the database used and the date the article was retrieved is no longer needed. Including: Britannica Online, Credo Reference, and Gale Virtual Reference Library Child care. (2001). In World of Sociology, Gale. Retrieved from http://www. credoreference. com In text citation: (â€Å"Child care,† 2001). Steinberg, Laurence. (2001). Parent-child relationships. In B. Strickland (Ed. ), The Gale encyclopedia of psychology (2nd ed. pp. 473477). Retrieved from http://go. galegroup. com In text citation: (Steinberg, 2001) 3. 8 Reference List: GENERAL SUBJECT DATABASES General reference format: Author, A. A. , Author, B. B. , Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of periodical, xx, pp-pp. doi: xx. xxxxxxxxxx Please note: If there is not a digital object identificati on number (DOI), include the home page of the database in the reference. Use this format: Retrieved from http://www†¦ Including: Pro Quest Central and EBSCOhost Examples (without DOI): Edmondson, J. (2002). The will of the people. The Reading Teacher, 55(5), 452-454. Retrieved from http://proquest. umi. com In text citation: (Edmondson, 2002). Saldinger, A. , Cain, A. , Porterfield, K. (2003, Summer). Managing traumatic stress in children anticipating parental death. Psychiatry, 66(2), 168. Retrieved from http://proquest. umi. com In text citation: First citation: (Saldinger, Cain, Porterfield, 2003). Subsequent citations: (Saldinger et al. , 2003). Example (with DOI): Fox, K. , Gover, A. , Kaukinen, C. (2009). The effects of low self-control and childhood maltreatment on stalking victimization among men and women. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(3/4), 181-197. doi:10. 007/s12103009-9064-4 In text citation: (Fox, Gover Kaukinen, 2009 14 3. 9 Reference List: CURRENT/CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES DATABASES CQ Researcher Clemmitt, M. (2009, August 28). Health-care reform. CQ Researcher, 19, 693-716. Retrieved from http://library. cqpress. com In-text citation: (Clemmitt, 2009) (magazine—â€Å"Issues and Controversies†) Child care. (2009, October 22). Issues and Controversies on File. Retrieved from http://www. 2facts. com In-text citation: (â€Å"Child care,† 2009) Facts on File (magazine—â€Å"Today’s Science†) A reverse on reverse revolution? (2009, November). Today’s Science. Retrieved from http://www. 2facts. com In-text citation: (â€Å"A reverse on reverse revolution? ,† 2009) (â€Å"World News Digest†) Swine flu: U. S. begins vaccinations. (2009, October 15). Facts on File World News Digest. Retrieved from http://www. 2facts. com In-text citation: (â€Å"Swine flu,† 2009) Horrigan, J. B. (2003). The Internet fosters online communities. In J. D. Torr (Ed. ), Current Controversies: The Information Age (n. p. ). San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press. Retrieved from http://find. galegroup. com In-text citation: (Horrigan, 2003) Opposing Viewpoints ACLU urges Senate committee. (1999). In T. O Neill (Ed. ), Opposing Viewpoints Digests Series: Biomedical Ethics (n. . ). San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press. Retrieved from http://find. galegroup. com In-text citation: (â€Å"ACLU urges Senate committee,† 1999). Epstein, E. (2005, March 23). Left and right united to challenge Patriot Act provisions. San Francisco Chronicle, p. A3. Retrieved from http://find. galegroup. com In-text citation: (Epstein, 2005) 15 3. 10 Reference List: SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DATABASES Access Science Ex: Stack, S. M. Anderson, L. K. Chromosome. doi:10. 1036/1097-8542. 134900 In text citation: (Stack Anderson, 2000). The African American Experience Ex: Loucky, J. , Armstrong, J. , Estrada, L. J. (2006). Asylum. In Immigration in America today: An encyclopedia (n. p. ). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Retrieved from http://aae. greenwood. com In text citation: (Loucky, Armstrong, Estrada, 2006). Author(s). (Date of Publication). Title of report (Accession No. xx). Location: Publisher. Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com Ex: Unruh, D. , Bullis, M. , Todis, B. , Waintrup, M. , Atkins, T. , National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. (2007). Programs and practices for special education students in alternative education settings (Accession No. ED495869). Research to Practice Brief 6(1). National Center on Secondary Education and Transition (NCSET), University of Minnesota. Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com ERIC First in text citation: (Unruh, Bullis, Todis, Waintrup, Atkins, National Center on Secondary Education and Transittion, 2001). Subsequent citations: (Unruh et al. , 2001). Ex: Dunlap, G. , Bunton-Pierce, M. (1999). Autism and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (Accession No. Washington, D. C. : Office of ED436068). Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (ED). Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com In text citation: (Dunlap Bunton-Pierce, 1999). 16 History Databases: US Ex: O’Brien, P. (2000). Viewpoint: Yes, internment of Japanese Americans was necessary for national security because some of them were suspected of disloyalty (Document No. BT2306200089). In R. J. Allison (Ed. ), History in dispute: Vol. 3. American social and political movements, 1900-1945. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. Retrieved from http://galenet. galegroup. com In-text citation: (O’Brien, 2000). Hoover’s Online Ex: Murray, B. (n. d. ). Just Born Inc. Retrieved from http://premium. hoovers. com In-text citation: (Murray, n. d. ). CINAHL Ex: Frame, K. (2003). Empowering preadolescents with ADHD: Demons or delights (Accession No. 2003096143). Advances in Nursing Science 26(2), 131-139. Retrieved from search. ebscohost. com In-text citation: (Frame, 2003). PsycArticles Ex: Alderfer, C. P. (2003). The science and nonscience of Psychologists’ responses to The Bell Curve. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 34(3). 287-293. doi:10. 1037/0735-7028. 34. 3. 287 In-text citation: (Alderfer, 2003). PubMed Central Ex: Weiss, M. , Murray, C. (2003). Assessment and management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Canadian Medical Association Journal 168(6). 715-722. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov In-text citation: (Weiss Murray, 2003). Westlaw Campus Ex: Lobel, J. (2002). The war on terrorism and civil liberties. University of Pittsburgh Law Review. Retrieved from http://campus. westlaw. com In-text citation: (Lobel, 2002). 17 4 – Referencing and Citation – For Literature and Linguistics Reference citation in the text should be as follows. The citation should be as brief as possible while directing the reader to the correct reference. †¢ †¢ More than one author with same name Add the first initial (or full first name if initial is the same): (A. Patterson 183; L. Patterson 230) †¢ Two or three authors Give all author names: (Rabking, Greenberg, and Olander vii) †¢ 4. 1 Single author Simply use Name followed by any relevant page number: (Marcuse 197) In text: Tannen has argued this point (178–85) More than three authors Follow the bibliographic entry: (Lauter et al. 2425) or all last names if given Books A Book by a Single Author Fukuyama, Francis. Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution. New York: Farrar, 2002. An Anthology or a Compilation Lopate, Phillip, ed. The Art of the Personal Essay: An Anthology from the Classical Era to the Present. New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1994. Spafford, Peter, comp. and ed. Interference: The Story of Czechoslovakia in the Words of Its Writers. Cheltenham: New Clarion, 1992. Two or More Books by the Same Author (Use three hyphens followed by period and then title, or comma and ed. †¦ if necessary) Borroff, Marie. Language and the Past: Verbal Artistry in Frost, Stevens, and Moore. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1979. —, trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. New York: Norton, 1967. —, ed. Wallace Stevens: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1963. 18 A Book by Two or More Authors Eggins, Suzanne, and Diana Slade. Analysing Casual Conversation. London: Cassell, 1997. If there are more than three authors, you may name only the first and add et al. â€Å"and others†), or you may give all names in full in the order in which they appear on the title page. Gilman, Sander, et al. Hysteria beyond Freud. Berkeley: U of California P, 1993. Or Gilman, Sander, Helen King, Roy Porter, George Rousseau, and Elaine Showalter. Hysteria beyond Freud. Berkeley: U of California P, 1993. Repeat names in full if the same person is part of a different authorship. Do not use three hyphens unless the total authorship is the same A Book by a Corporate Author American Medical Association. The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine. Ed. Charles B. Layman. New York: Random, 1989. A Work in an Anthology Allende, Isabel. â€Å"Toad’s Mouth. † Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A Hammock beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed Thomas Colchie. New York: Plume, 1992. 83–88. Often the works in anthologies have been published before. If you wish to inform your reader of the date when a previously published piece other than a scholarly article first appeared, you may follow the title of the piece with the year of original publication and a period. Franklin, Benjamin. â€Å"Emigration to America. † 1782. The Faber Book of America. Ed. Christopher Ricks and William L. Vance. Boston: Faber, 1992. 24–26. An Article in a Reference Book â€Å"Noon†. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. Mohanty, Jitendra M. â€Å"Indian Philosophy. † The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Macropaedia. 15th ed. 1987. An Introduction, a Preface, a Foreword or an Afterword Borges, Jorge Luis. Foreword. Selected Poems, 1923–1967. By Borges. Ed. Norman Thomas Di Giovanni. New York: Delta-Dell, 1973. xv–xvi. If the introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword has a title, give the title, enclosed in 19 quotation marks, immediately before the name of the part. Brodsky, Joseph. â€Å"Poetry as a Form of Resistance to Reality. † Foreword. Winter Dialogue . By Tomas Venclova. Trans. Diana Senechal. Evanston: HydraNorthwestern UP, 1997. vii– xviii. An Anonymous Book Encyclopedia of Virginia. New York: Somerset, 1993. A Translation Beowulf. Trans. E. Talbot Donaldson. Ed. Nicholas Howe. New York: Norton, 2001. Hildegard of Bingen. Selected Writings. Trans. Mark Atherton. New York: Penguin, 2001. A Book Published in a Second or Subsequent Edition Bondanella, Peter. Italian Cinema: From Neorealism to the Present. 3rd ed. New York: Continuum, 2001. A Multivolume Work Blanco, Richard L. , ed. The American Revolution, 1775–1783: An Encyclopedia. 2 vols. Hamden: Garland, 1993. Crane, Stephen. The University of Virginia Edition of the Works of Stephen Crane. Ed. Fredson Bowers. 10 vols. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1969–76. If you are using one volume of a multivolume work state the number of the volume: Lawrence, D. H. The Letters of D. H. Lawrence. Ed. James T. Boulton. Vol. 8. New York: Cambridge UP, 2000. A Book in a Series Neruda, Pablo. Canto General. Trans. Jack Schmitt. Latin Amer. Lit. and Culture 7. Berkeley: U of California P, 1991. A Republished Book Atwood, Margaret. The Blind Assassin. 2000. New York: Knopf-Random, 2001. A Book with Multiple Publishers Wells, H. G. The Time Machine. 895. London: Dent; Rutland: Tuttle, 1992. A Government Publication Great Britain. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food. Dept. of the Environment, Transport, and the Regions. Our Countryside, the Future: A Fair Deal for Rural England. London: HMSO, 2000. New York State. Commission on the Adirondacks in the Twenty-First Century. The Adirondack Park in the Twenty-First-Century. Albany: State of New York, 1990. 20 Poore, Benjamin Perley, comp. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Government Publications of the United States, September 5, 1774–March 4, 1881. US 48th Cong. , 2nd sess. Misc. Doc. 67. Washington: GPO, 1885. The Published Proceedings of a Conference Hualde, Jose Ignacio. â€Å"Patterns of Correspondence in the Adaptation of Spanish Borrowings in Basque. † Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, February 12–15, 1999: General Session and Parasession on Loan Word Phenomena. Ed. Steve S. Chang, Lily Liaw, and Josef Ruppenhofer. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Soc. , 2000. 348–58. Freed, Barbara F. , ed. Foreign Language Acquisition Research and the Classroom. Proc. of Consortium for Lang. Teaching and Learning Conf. , Oct. 1989, U of Pennsylvania. Lexington: Heath, 1991. An Unpublished Dissertation Boyle, Anthony T. â€Å"The Epistemological Evolution of Renaissance Utopian Literature, 1516– 1657. † Diss. New York U, 1983. A Published Dissertation Dietze, Rudolf F. Ralph Ellison: The Genesis of an Artist. Diss. U Erlangen-Nurnberg, 1982. Erlanger Beitrage zur Sprach- und Kunstwissenschaft 70. Nurnberg: Carl, 1982. 4. 2 Journals and Newspapers An Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination Hanks, Patrick. â€Å"Do Word Meanings Exist? † Computers and the Humanities 34 (2000): 205–15. Mann, Susan. â€Å"Myths of Asian Womanhood. † Journal of Asian Studies 59 (2000): 835–62. An Article in a Journal that pages each issue separately Albada, Kelly F. â€Å"The Public and Private Dialogue about the American Family on Television. † Journal of Communication 50. 4 (2000): 79–110. Some journals do not use volume numbers at all, numbering issues only. Treat the issue numbers of such journals as you would volume numbers. 21 An Article in a Newspaper Jeromack, Paul. â€Å"This Once, a David of the Art World Does Goliath a Favor. † New York Times 13 July 2002, late ed. : B7+. Abbreviate months as follows: Jan. , Feb. , Mar. , Apr. , May, June, July, Aug. , Sept. , Oct. , Nov. , Dec. An Article in a Magazine Mehta, Pratap Bhanu. â€Å"Exploding Myths. † New Republic 6 June 1998: 17–19. An Anonymous Article â€Å"Dubious Venture. † Time 3 Jan. 1994: 64–65. A Special Issue Perret, Delphine, and Marie-Denise Shelton, eds. Maryse Conde. Spec. issue of Callaloo 18. 3 (1995): 535–711. Somin, Ilya. â€Å"Do Politicians Pander? † State Autonomy. Spec. issue of Critical Review 14. 2–3 (2000): 147–55. A Legal Source New York Times Co. v. Tasini. No. 00-201. Supreme Ct. of the US. 25 June 2001. 4. 3 Electronic Publications Basic Entry Document from Internet Site Zeki, Semir. â€Å"Artistic Creativity and the Brain. † Science 6 July 2001: 51–52. Science Magazine. 2002. Amer. Assn. For the Advancement of Science. 24 Sept. 2002 . Entire Internet Site Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. 2002. Alderman Lib. , U of Virginia. 19 June 2002 . Online Books Nagata, Linda. Goddesses. 2000. Scifi. com. 4 Oct. 2002 . Keats, John. â€Å"Ode on a Grecian Urn. † Poetical Works. 1884. Bartleby. com: Great Books Online. Ed. Steven van Leeuwen. 2002. 5 May 2002 . United States. Dept. of Justice. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Law Enforcement and Juvenile Crime. By Howard N. Snyder. Dec. 2001. 29 June 2002 . 22 Online Periodicals Butler, Darrell L. , and Martin Sellbom. â€Å"Barriers to Adopting Technology for Teaching and Learning. † Educause Quarterly 25. 2 (2002): 22–28. Educause. Aug. 2002 . Publications on CD-ROM, Diskette or Magnetic Tape It is important to state the publication medium as different formats may be different. Braunmuller, A. R. , ed. Macbeth. By William Shakespeare. CD-ROM. New York: Voyager, 1994. E-mail Communication Harner, James L. E-mail to the author. 20 Aug. 2002. 23 5 – Formatting and Presentation 5. 1 Page Size and Quality: AA4 (A4-Fine paper) should be used for submission of proposal / synopsis. Minimum paper weight should be 80 grams. 5. 2 Page Setup / Margins: At least 1? -1? inches (3. 17-3. 81cm) on the right-hand side, 3/4 – 1 inch (2 2. 54cm) at the bottom of the page, and about ? 0. 75 inches (1. 27 – 1. 90cm) at the outer edge. 5. 3 Page Numbering: The best position for the page number is at top-centre or top right ? inch (1. 27 cm) below the edge. Pages containing figures and illustration should be suitable paginated. 5. 4 Font: New Times Roman font should be used throughout the proposal / synopsis. 5. 5 Font Size: Title Page 22 (Bold) Chapter Titles 16 (Bold) Headings 14 (Bold) Sub Headings 12 (Bold) Text 12 Footnotes / End notes 10 Footnotes be given on the same page where reference is quoted 5. 6 Paragraph Setting: Line spacing should be 1. 5 and all the paragraph should be justified (Ctrl + J). No tab is required at the starting of a new paragraph. Use one line space between paragraphs for differentiation. 5. 7 Number of Copies: The students are required to submit 20 to 25 copies (as per coordinator’s directive) other than the master copy, to be presented to Board of Advanced Studies and Research (BOASAR). 5. 8 Binding: Only one master copy should be in tape binding with plastic cover and no need of binding for the rest of copies. 5. 9 Submission of Soft Copy of Proposal: The students are required to send a PDF copy of their research proposal to the program coordinator on the following e-mail address: jazahmad@qurtuba. edu. pk 25 Research Proposal The Role of Contingency Employees in Organizational Performance (A Case Study of Islamia College, Peshawar) By Nisar Muhammad M. S – Management Sciences Student I. D: 4818 Supervisor Dr. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Department of Management Sciences ______________________________________________ __________________ Qurtuba University of Science and Information Technology Peshawar. 26 Recommendation Sheet Certified that the research proposal of Mr / Ms. [Your Official Name], Student I. D # 0000, with the title â€Å"Research Title [ Bold,14pt, Title Case]† has been reviewed and recommended to be presented to Board of Advance Studies and Research (BOASAR) for final review and approval. ______________________ Supervisor: Dr†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 27 Table of Contents 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 2. Literature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 3. Research Problem / Question†¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 4. Research Objective†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 5. Hypothesis (Optional).. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 6. Methodology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 7. Significance of the study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 8. Scope and Limitations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 9. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 28 The Role of Contingency Employees in Organizational Performance (A Case Study of Islamia College Peshawar) By: Nisar Muhammad 1. Introduction: The proposal should start with proper headings and sub-headings as per suggested standard format. 29 Student Profile Paste a passport size e-photo here Name: ____________________________ s/o _________________________________ Program: _________________________ ID #: ____________________ Cell No: _______________________ Land Line No: ___________________________ Email: ____________________________________ Educational Qualification: (Starting From the highest Degree) Certificate / Degree Year Division / Grade Board / University Professional Experience: S. No Organization Designation From To 1 2 3 4 Personal Statement (a short paragraph about yourself):____________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ (Signature of the student) How to cite E-Research Proposal Hand Book.Pdf, Essays

Auditing and assurance service in Australia - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss about the Auditing and assurance service in Australia. Answer: Introduction The study helps in illustrating about ASA 701 auditing directive, which suggests about the advices regarding communication of key audit matters predominantly in the independent report of the auditors. The auditing standard ASA701 Communicating Key Audit Matters in the Independent Auditors Report is developed at the backdrop of the international fiscal crisis (Vallabhaneni 2013). The current segment evaluates the monetary crisis, where all the relevant problems faced by the organisation during the period is evaluated. The times of diverse monetary unsteadiness can essentially help in comprehension of different concepts of crisis. There is manifestation of diverse challenges particularly from the economic, political plus social environment. As rightly indicated by the worldwide financial crisis, relevant tensions during the period, disorder along with critical examination has manifested in the financial sector of the world. Thus, economic crisis can be regarded as a distrust in the fin ancial structure, a substantial decrease in transactions of stock exchange and a disorder of market transactions. This mainly occur due to the negative impact of financial sector on performance of the company in generating higher rate of return. The government and international institutions such as Woolworths Limited can attempt to rise above the adverse impacts of the financial crisis by directing the method of worldwide financial reform (William Jr et al. 2016). ASA 701 auditing measure institutes diverse necessities and carries along with explanatory materials about communication of Key Matters of Audit (KAM) in essentially the independent report of the auditors. This standard can be applied to the process of audit of financial declaration of Woolworths Limited for a specific financial year or else assessment of financial report for half year as per Corporations Act of the year 2001. Audit of financial assertion of Woolworths Limited otherwise a complete set of financial declarations for other reasons can use ASA 701 for pecuniary reporting of business entity on and after December 15, 2016 (Arenset al, 2012). This directive can hereby help in dealing with accountabilities of the auditors of the corporation Woolworths Limited to correspond properly key audit matters. However, in carrying out the process, the assessor has the need to take into consideration diverse areas of high examined risk of mainly material misstatement else wise other considerable risks detected in financial statements of Woolworths Limited as per ASA 315 (as mentioned in paragraph A 19 to A 22). This process of determination also includes considerable auditor judgements associated to areas in the financial assertions that include important management judgement, counting diverse estimates of accounting detected as high estimation uncertainty. The impact of audit of significance incidents or else transactions happened during specific time. Essentially, the evaluator also has the need to ascertain matters that were mentioned according to paragraph 9.In addition, the auditing standard depicts the financial declaration of current period and thus can be identified as the key audit matters (as mentioned in the paragraph: A 9 to A 11 and A 27 to A 30). The financial assertions of the firm Woolworths Limited states that both the consolidated as well as individual annual financial assertions have been presented as per the International Financial Reporting Standards- IFRS by the International Accounting Standards Board also simply referred to as (IASB), pecuniary declarations as mentioned by particularly Financial Reporting Standards Council, varied requirements stipulated under Companies Act of particularly South Africa, South African Institute of Chartered Accountants abbreviated as SAICA, necessities of the Companies Act stipulated under South Africa together with the JSE Limited Listing Requirements. In addition to this, the group also combines different subsidiaries. These matters can help investors in observing maintenance of adherence to regulations regarding financial presentation, auditing, and assurance. Accounting policies: The annual report of the corporation Woolworths Limited presents the accounting policies that can subsequently be used by investors for comprehending the pecuniary condition of the corporation. The basis of preparation used for preparation of consolidated along with the separate annual financial assertions of the firm Woolworths Limited are necessarily presented utilizing both the historical cost as well as bases of going concern. Thus, this can help in understanding diverse modified opinion as per regulations of ASA 570 or else material uncertainty related to diverse incidents otherwise state of affairs that might perhaps shed uncertainty on ability of business entity to carry on as a going concern as per regulations specified as per ASA 570. Therefore, the key audit matters mainly need to provide all the relevant information, where auditors can report relevant information to help them understand capability of the firm to continue its operations. Analysing annual report of Woolworths Limited The auditors report in the financial statement mainly reflect that according to viewpoints of the auditors, consolidated as well as individual financial statement essentially presents fair view. Importance of assessing the risk of audit The reasons for issuance of the auditing standard ASA 315by the Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (AUASB) helps in recognizing and analysing the material misstatement risk by comprehending specific entity and organisational environment. According to the regulation ASA 315, Woolworths Limiteds auditors have the need to understand the business risk that essentially indicates towards the risk resulting from important conditions, incidents, state of affairs else wise inactions that cam adversely affect potential of an entity to attain its objectives and implement its stratagems (Messier et al.2014). It is important to assess the risk of audit processes for obtaining clear understanding of the business entity along with the environment, counting the internal control of the entity to recognize as well as evaluate the risks of particularly material misstatement, whether owing to fraud or else error (intentional or unintentional) in the annual report together with levels of assertion. The methods that can be associated with the accounting statement pronouncements of Woolworths Limited The regulatory procedures that ASA 315 (Reference: Paragraph A 105 A108) includes, gives an overview into the identification and assessment of the risks associated with materiality that have been included in the different segments of the annual report. The risks associated with the material misstatement at the particular level of assertion for diverse classes of transaction, balances of account as well as disclosures of the corporation to deliver a foundation for chiefly designing and performing processes related to audit can be linked with it (Messier et al. 2014). The auditor will be able analyse the risks that have been detected, and analyse whether they associate more to financial report. From the overall evaluation of annual report relevant material misstatement of the organisation could be identified. The auditors report has mainly depicted the financial statement, where material misstatement of the company could be identified. In addition, both auditors and directors report mainly states that no material misstatement is currently present within the organisation. The auditors mainly state that no material misstatement in currently present within the operations of the organisation. The company has mainly generated from the Accounting Standard AASB 101, which is used in preparing the financial statement. The companys financial report is mainly free from any kind of material misstatement, which is depicted in the annual report. In addition, the financial report prepared by the company is ethically viable, as it helps in depicting financial performance of the company. The annual report is mainly designed for depicting performance of the company. The auditors report has mainly complied with Australian Auditing Standards, while evaluating the financial annual report of Woolworths. The viable method of preparing the financial report could eventually allow the company to depict its financial performance to its stakeholders. Therefore, the preparation of the annual report is relatively considered a positive attribute of the company, where no material misstatements are present. Significant business risks that are common to the planning process of audit In view of high profile scandals of accounting in current times, the role as well as accountabilities of assessors can be questioned. The auditors of the corporation Woolworths need to have understanding regarding the corporation; risks together with the areas where the corporation is exposed, causing them to reduce the impacts of extreme practices related to accounting (Messier et al. 2014). It is for these kinds of accounting scandals that the top down approach has been accepted and is even stressed which involves the auditor advances to gain an explanation of the corporate entity, business surroundings in regards to the operations of the business firm, important business risks and the conversion of these risks into audit risks. Procedures that can be performed by an evaluator to analyse the risk The procedures that can be followed by an evaluator to analyse the risk include the following: Identification of risks of business pertinent to objectives of financial reporting of the firm (Kend 2015) Approximating the importance of risks Evaluating the overall likelihood of the occurrence Deciding regarding activities to address the identified risks As per AUS A24.1 of ASA 315, ownership as well as governance arrangement also need to be there. The directors of the organization and the executives delegated with the responsibility of corporate governance can determine policies for the determination of the levels of risk (Kend 2015). The senior management can design, implement and monitor effectual risk management systems to execute policies that have been advised by the directors of the organization. Again, the non-executive directors present on the higher-level management as well as independent compensation commission will be able to review diverse plans, counting commissions, bonuses that are discretionary in nature, service contracts of executives and sharing of profits. The strength of specifically internal audit operation and audit committee and their role can help in independent appraisal function. Appreciation of significance of internal control to a specific entity and to the independent auditors As per (Ref: paragraph A 36 to A41) the auditor can acquire an understanding regarding pertinent industry divisions, regulatory as well as other external facets along with the applicable framework financial reporting. The auditor can also acquire a comprehensive understanding as regards the internal control pertinent to the work of audit. Even though, majority of the controls applicable to the process of audit can probably be related to the process of financial reporting (Vera-Muoz et al. 2014). However, not all kinds of controls that relate to financial reporting are applicable to audit. Essentially, according to regulation stipulated under (ASA 315, ref paragraph, A42 to A65), this pertains to professional judgement of the assessor whether a specific control, singly or in combination with different others is pertinent to the process of audit. Essentially, the assessor can think about comprehending the control environment by acquiring clear understanding by evaluating whether admini stration with the oversight of the ones charged with governance has generated and maintained culture of honesty as well as ethical behaviour (Arenset al. 2012). Risk of material misstatement: Risk of material misstatement can be regarded as risk that the financial assertions of a corporation have been improperly stated to a certain degree of materiality. However, the risk might be evaluated by the assessors at two different levels, including inherent risk as well as control risk at the level of assertion. As rightly indicated by Knechel and Salterio (2016), inherent risk refers to a susceptibility of the management of the organizations financial assertion in regards to misstatement that pertains to error or else fraud that should be considered in regards to diversified controls. On the other hand, control risk related to the material risk mandatorily has to be considered or else recognized by auditing controls implemented within an organization. Auditing standard have the need to comply with the International Standard on Auditing Standard ISA 260 that refers to the need for communicating the ones associated with governance practices issued by particularly International Auditing as well as Assurance Standards Board. As rightly indicated by Gay and Simnett (2014), the entire board is responsible for the system/process of internal control for the entire group. It is important to declare the result of the risk management practices, alongside actions of autonomous assurance provider. This helps in controlling, counting financial controlling and can be considered to be important audit matters (Louwerset al. 2015). Woolworths Limiteds financial report reveals the fact that the directors have evaluated the Groups annual budget along with the financial forecast in regards to the inflow of cash during the financial year of 2017 and overview into the insurance arrangements of the entire group. However, based on the review as well as on the basis of the settings of the present financial condition and present debt facilities, the board of directors of the organization are content that the specific group is an appropriate going concern and have sustained to presuppose going concern based in the course of preparing and presenting Annual Financial Statements. This process of communicating key audit matters thus helps management to arrive at appropriate judgements and preparation as well as presentation of the financial statements (Cohen and Simnett 2014). Going concern considerations As per Auditing Standard ASA 570 (indicating towards going concern), there is requirement for mentioning risk related assessment procedure as well related activities, evaluation of administrations assessment, phase beyond assessment of the supplementary inspection procedures and management when events or else conditions have been detected (Junior et al. 2014). The requirement of the standard ASA 570 also includes communication with entities charged with governance accountability (Hayes et al. 2014). However, analysis of financial assertion of the firm Woolworths Limited reveals the fact that group treasury committee was instituted in the firm that necessarily can oversee specific actions in regards to the treasury of the entire group. This group was responsible to make it certain that there is appropriate regulation of diverse crucial function/operation (Kendet al. 2014). The audit committee delivers diverse duties that have been oversighted from the viewpoint of the entire management and from the perspective of mainly Companies Act of particularly South Africa. This mainly can be associated to auditors, specific governance controls as well as pecuniary assertions of the corporation and the extent to which it complies with the pertinent legislation, directives as well as governance exercises. The committee properly regulated all these affairs as established in terms of reference that are assessed as well as approved by the board on a yearly basis, aligned to the regulatory neces sities of the committee. This helps users of accounting statements to understand whether the company is fulfilling the requirements to become a going concern (Vanstraelen and Schelleman 2017). The working group analysed the appraisal of entire going concern position in regards to the whole group and recommended to the management that the total group will be able to convert into a going concern for the approximated future. This report suggests that it is solvent and can give out projected dividend (Earley 2015). This disclosure by the management of the company can also be considered to be an important audit matter that essentially has the need for communication of the comprehensive financial condition of Woolworths Limited. Comprehending business entities and business environment The assessors also have the requirement to have appropriate comprehension of the business concern and the business atmosphere in which the business functions. In addition to this, the auditors also feel the necessity to focus on particular areas of accounting statements for recognition of firms material misstatements (Soh et al. 2015). The assessor also has the requirement for special considerations for diverse areas of financial reporting that comprises of adjustments in accounting, impairments of diverse registered value of asset, alterations in share capital along with debt preparations among loads of others (Carson et al. 2016). Recommendations and conclusions In the end, it can be concluded that the assessors need to outline stratagems and subsequently gather substantiation to support different kinds of management. The numerous financial declarations are accurate within the restrictions of materiality. As a result, for expressing this kind of viewpoints, the assessor needs to assess all the existing evidences to wrap up the financial assertions would be maintained. Essentially, professional scepticism in the accounting statements of Woolworths Limited can constrain the judgement of the assessors regarding the substantiation that are necessary to achieve the state. Again, principles in regards to accounting have been fundamentally prescriptive in addition to perfunctory in nature as well as characteristics. Conversely, the auditing regulations should mandatorily have the features as the examinations and methods are descriptive and rely exclusively on the judgements of the assessors. The assessors are expected to be autonomous and regulate different clients. Therefore, it is highly recommended that the auditors should maintain an objective overview and should mandatorily look out for audit substantiation. 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